Collection And Presentation Of Data In Statistics Pdf
Organisation of Data in StatisticsClass 11 Notes PDF Free Download1. Classification of Data:-The process of grouping data according to their characteristics is known as classification of data.2.
Objectives of Classification:-a To simplify complex datab To facilitate understandingc To facilitate comparisond To make analysis and interpretation easy.e To arrange and put the data according to their common characteristics.3. Statistical Series:-Systematic arrangement of statistical dataI. Can be on the basis of individual units:- The data can be individually presented in two forms:i Raw data: Data collected in original form.ii Individual Series: The arrangement of raw data individually. It can be expressed in two ways.a Alphabetical arrangement: Alphabetical orderb Array: Ascending or descending order.II. Can be on the basis of Frequency Distribution:-Frequency distribution refers to a table in which observed values of a variable are classified according to their numerical magnitude.1.
Discrete Series:-A variable is called discrete if the variable can take only some particular values.2. Continuous Series:-A variable is called continuous if it can take any value in a given range. In constructing continuous series we come across terms like:a Class: Each given internal is called a class e.g., 0-5, 5-10.b Class limit: There are two limits upper limit and lower limit.c Class interval: Difference between upper limit and lower limit.d Range: Difference between upper limit and lower limit.e Mid-point or Mid Value:f Frequency: Number of items observations falling within a particular class.i Exclusive Series: Excluding the upper limit of these classes, all the items of the class are included in the class itself. E.g.,:ii InclusiveMarks0-1010-2020-3030-40Number of Students2521Series: Upper class limits of classes are included in the respective classes. Name of Students252Open End Classes:The lower limit of the first class and upper limit of the last class are not given.
E.g.,MarksBelow 2020-3030-4040-5050 and aboveNumber of Students761253iii Cumulative Frequency Series: It is obtained by successively adding the frequencies of the values of the classes according to a certain law.a ‘Less than’ Cumulative Frequency Distribution: The frequencies of each class-internal are added successively.b ‘More than’ Cumulative Frequency Distribution: The more than cumulative frequency is obtained by finding the cumulative totals of frequencies starting from the highest value of the variable to the lowest value.
Below is the uncorrected machine-read text of this chapter, intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text of each book. Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.l -Methods ofData Collection,RepresentationAnalysis, andSMethods ofData Collection.Representation, andThis chapter concerns research on collecting, representing, and analyzingthe data that underlie behavioral and social sciences knowledge.
Such research,methodological in character, includes ethnographic and historical approaches,scaling, axiomatic measurement, and statistics, with its important relatives,econometrics and psychometrics. The field can be described as including theself-conscious study of how scientists draw inferences and reach conclusionsfrom observations. Since statistics is the largest and most prominent of meth-odological approaches and is used by researchers in virtually every discipline,statistical work draws the lion's share of this chapter's attention.Problems of interpreting data arise whenever inherent variation or measure-ment fluctuations create challenges to understand data or to judge whetherobserved relationships are significant, durable, or general.
Importance Of Data Presentation
Some examples: Isa sharp monthly (or yearly) increase in the rate of juvenile delinquency (orunemployment) in a particular area a matter for alarm, an ordinary periodicor random fluctuation, or the result of a change or quirk in reporting method?Do the temporal patterns seen in such repeated observations reflect a directcausal mechanism, a complex of indirect ones, or just imperfections in theAnalysis167168 / The Behavioral and Social Sciencesdata? Is a decrease in auto injuries an effect of a new seat-belt law? Are thedisagreements among people describing some aspect of a subculture too greatto draw valid inferences about that aspect of the culture?Such issues of inference are often closely connected to substantive theoryand specific data, and to some extent it is difficult and perhaps misleading totreat methods of data collection, representation, and analysis separately. Thisreport does so, as do all sciences to some extent, because the methods developedoften are far more general than the specific problems that originally gave riseto them.
There is much transfer of new ideas from one substantive field toanotherand to and from fields outside the behavioral and social sciences.Some of the classical methods of statistics arose in studies of astronomicalobservations, biological variability, and human diversity. The major growth ofthe classical methods occurred in the twentieth century, greatly stimulated byproblems in agriculture and genetics. Some methods for uncovering geometricstructures in data, such as multidimensional scaling and factor analysis, orig-inated in research on psychological problems, but have been applied in manyother sciences. Some time-series methods were developed originally to dealwith economic data, but they are equally applicable to many other kinds ofdata.Within the behavioral and social sciences, statistical methods have beendeveloped in and have contributed to an enormous variety of research, includ-ing: In economics: large-scale models of the U.S. Economy; effects of taxa-tion, money supply, and other government fiscal and monetary policies;theories of duopoly, oligopoly, and rational expectations; economic effectsof slavery. In psychology: test calibration; the formation of subjective probabilities,their revision in the light of new information, and their use in decisionmaking; psychiatric epidemiology and mental health program evaluation.
Data Presentation And Analysis Pdf
In sociology and other fields: victimization and crime rates; effects ofincarceration and sentencing policies; deployment of police and fire-fight-ing forces; discrimination, antitrust, and regulatory court cases; social net-works; population growth and forecasting; and voting behavior.Even such an abridged listing makes clear that improvements in method-ology are valuable across the spectrum of empirical research in the behavioraland social sciences as well as in application to policy questions.